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WA POLICE ACADEMY LAND OPERATIONS TRAINING UNIT
AIDS TO SURVIVAL
Nineteenth Edition
November 1999
This book is a Western Australia Police Academy Publication and is available free of charge to individuals from their local Police Station. Organizations or groups requiring larger quantities can access and download this publication from our website [www.wapol.gov.au]. The book is offered as an ongoing service in the interest of community safety and security. The contents are not subject to copyright and there are no restrictions on copying in any form by interested individuals and groups.
First printed 1979.
A copy of this publication has been deposited in the Australian National Library.
ISBN: 0-646-36303-4
This
The Police Land Operations Training Unit was introduced to
provide members of the Western Australia Police Service with the necessary
skills and knowledge to carry out their duties in outback
Originally the book was produced to provide members of the Western Australia Police Service with a locally produced source of reference for use in training and for dissemination to the public. To this end the book has proved to be extremely successful, this being the 19th edition with over 400,000 copies being distributed since its introduction in 1979.
The book is required reading for several community groups,
youth organizations, education institutions and industry trainers throughout
A dedicated group of community minded individuals and
organizations have contributed information and items over the years and their
efforts and contributions are much appreciated. Contributors include - Peter
Bindon [W A Museum]. Vern Delgado. Ronele and Eric Gard. John Evans [CALM].
Duke of Edinburgh’s Award [WA]. Royal Lifesaving Society [WA].
Thanks are also extended to the staff and students of classes
conducted by the Western Australia Police Academy Land Operations Training Unit
and members of the community of
C.
SUPERINTENDENT.
PRINCIPAL. WA
November-99
BASIC
REQUIREMENTS FOR SURVIVAL
THE
IMPORTANCE OF WATER TO SURVIVAL
PREPARATION
OF GAME FOR COOKING
THE
TASTE TEST FOR PLANT EDIBILITY
SOME
COMMON TYPES OF EDIBLE VEGETATION
THE
SOUTHERN CROSS METHOD - AT NIGHT
NAVIGATING
AT NIGHT WITHOUT A COMPASS
METHODS
OF CROSSING CREEKS & RIVERS
GROUP
FIRST AID KIT [approx 20 people]
SETTING
THE COMPASS TO WALK ON A MAGNETIC BEARING
ALTERING
DIRECTION TO AVOID AN OBSTACLE
PRINCIPLES
OF MINIMUM IMPACT CAMPING
PERSONAL
& EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT
EXPEDITION
EQUIPMENT CHECK LIST
Adequate preparation before undertaking a journey or accepting employment in the outback will lessen the chance of jeopardising human life. There have been many cases where loss of life has resulted from a lack of foresight into the problems involved.
PRIOR PREPARATION & PLANNING
There are a number of things to be considered before starting to pack for your trip, these are linked to the premise that –
Prior Preparation & Planning Prevents Poor Performance.
Equipment Required
The equipment you are taking must be serviceable and sufficient for the trip. Allow additional equipment if in doubt. Maps should cover the entire area of the trip.
Communications
For close range communication between vehicles a citizen
band UHF or VHF radio may be used, however for long-range communication a HF
radio or satellite communication device is essential.
Terrain to be Covered
A map study should be done to ascertain the following:
§ Is it accessible by vehicle or by foot?
§ Where are the fuel and water sources en route?
§ What is the best route?
§ What aids to navigation will you have?
§ What alternate route could you use if necessary?
§ What positions of evacuation are available?
§ Where are the local inhabitants?
Use of Maps
The Western Australian bush is very monotonous with very few landmarks and a lack of signposts on outback roads. Be wary of spoken directions as they can be misinterpreted and the wrong track easily taken.
In the absence of an official map, try to obtain a rough map drawn on paper with as many landmarks as possible indicated showing the necessary distances.
NOTE:
Mark your position on the map as you proceed so you can pinpoint your location at any given time. Do confirm your position at every opportunity.
Weather Conditions
The weather must be considered as many road conditions vary according to the local rainfall. You should be aware of the changes of season in the area of your trip, this will ensure that you are going at the best time of year. Check with police or local authorities after rain as many outback roads can be closed.
Time allowance
You should consider carefully the time and space you are allowing for your trip.
§ When are you leaving?
§ How long will it take?
§ Where do you propose stopping to camp?
§ When will you arrive?
§ Have you allowed a safety margin in case of minor mishaps?
Learn about the country
You should learn as much about the country you are to travel, as possible. This will assist you if you have to survive in it. Things to study would be -
§ Native Foods
§ Water Sources
§ Local Problems
Notifications
Before leaving on a journey through remote areas always notify friends, relatives, station owners or police of the following information –
1. Estimated time of departure [ETD]
2. Proposed and alternate routes
3. Estimated time of arrival [ETA]
NOTE:
Don't forget to notify those concerned once you have safely completed the journey.
VEHICLE SELECTION
Selection of a suitable vehicle for safe outback travel will rely on the load that you are going to carry. As well as major items of fuel, food and water you may also be carrying camping equipment, cooking gear, vehicle spares, tools, recovery equipment, an extra spare tyre and passengers. If you choose to travel 'off road' you will need to be sure your vehicle can withstand the harsh and rugged conditions you will encounter.
Vehicle Preparation
Your vehicle will not only be your means of transport but if you are travelling 'off road' it will be your home and of course your biggest aid to survival should something unforeseen happen to you. As such it must be in first class mechanical condition. If you are not a mechanic it is best to take the vehicle to one who specialises in this type of vehicle. Explain the nature of your trip and have them go over the vehicle from top to bottom. Short courses in vehicle maintenance are offered by most community, TAFE Colleges, etc.
Roof Racks
To carry the intended load you will probably need to install a roof rack. Buy only from a reputable manufacturer who specialises in your type of vehicle.
Under Body Protection Plates
These are considered necessary by some people for rocky creek crossings, etc. They can be a problem in spinifex country as after only a few kilometres' spinifex packs tightly under the plate and creates a definite fire hazard.
Roo and Scrub Bars
These are not essential items for off-road travel but they can be good value should you be unlucky enough to hit a kangaroo or other large animal.
Spinifex Protection
Some spinifex grows to a height of nearly 2m and the seeds can be drawn into the radiator. At least 3 layers of fibreglass wire netting should be placed over the front of the vehicle.
Fire Extinguishers
It is good planning to carry at least 5 litres of water in a plastic garden spray for spinifex and grass fires as well as an extinguisher suitable for electrical or fuel fires.
Tyres
It is important to discuss your tyres with your local tyre dealer before your trip. Ensure you have the right tyres for the task. Eight ply radials are recommended as a minimum for off‑road use. Two spares plus an additional 2 tubes should be carried.
Wheel Rims
It is easier to change a tyre on a split rim than on a pressed safety rim or alloy rim so stick with the standard steel split rim.
Winches
Types of winches range from hand, electric or power take off. If you have a winch fitted to your vehicle make sure you know how to use it. There are some simple safety rules to follow:
1. Always use a sling around an anchor point rather than forming a loop.
2. Never place your hands within 1m of the drum if the winch is operating.
3. Always leave six turns of cable on the drum.
4. Run the engine when using an electric winch.
5. Cables should be kept straight ahead of the winch. Do not pull if the cable is more than 15 degrees to either side.
Dual Battery Systems
When operating in the outback each battery should be used individually on a daily basis. When making camp for the night the appropriate drill should be used to ensure that the alternate battery is fully charged and will start the vehicle in the morning. The battery used for overnight use [refrigerator, etc.] may go flat.
Fuel
Long-range fuel tanks are an excellent idea but make sure yours is fitted in the approximate centre of the vehicle between the chassis rails. Use the rear tank first to equalise load. If you do not have a long-range tank then 20 litre jerry cans are an excellent method of carrying fuel. If you carry jerry cans make sure they are metal or designed to carry fuel and use tie wire on all caps to prevent spillage.
Water
Allow 4 to 5 litres of drinking water for each person per day while travelling. If you have a built in water tank fitted with an external tap it should be fitted with a tap guard and the tap itself lock-wired when moving.
Emergency Pack
Enough spare food, water and blankets should be included to allow for any unforeseen delays. Emergency rations should last at least three days on top of your planned trip. A three-day emergency pack for each person should consist of -
§ 6 ready to eat meals
§ 4 litres of water
§ Emergency blanket
§ Waterproof matches
Vehicle Loading
The loading of the vehicle is critical and the vehicle's centre of gravity kept as low as possible always. Get in the habit of checking whenever you stop.
Vehicle Check List
The following items should be checked at the end of each day. This procedure should be conducted as part of your everyday routine and should never be neglected.
1. Check engine drive belts
2. Check engine oil levels
3. Check coolant levels
4. Check fuel filter [if possible]
5. Clean air cleaner
6. Clean radiator fins
7. Check brake fluid levels
8. Check clutch fluid levels
9. Check power steering fluid level
10. Check engine for oil leaks
11. Check engine for coolant leaks
12. Check transmission for oil leaks
13. Check differential for oil leaks
14. Check all steering rods for wear and cracking
15. Check all joints for wear and cracking
16. Check all tyre pressures
17. Check all tyres for damage
18. Check battery levels
19. Check chassis rails for cracks
20. Tighten all mounting bolts, etc.
VEHICLE, TOOL & RECOVERY KITS
A comprehensive tool kit should be carried and should be suited specifically to your vehicle. If you travel in the outback "off road" at some stage you are going to encounter sand dunes, claypans, salt lakes and rocky creek beds. You are eventually going to become stuck and a complete vehicle recovery kit should be carried.
Vehicle Tool Kit
|
Screwdriver, 200 mm |
Oil Filter |
|
Screwdriver, Phillips |
Insulating tape, roll |
|
Pliers, general purpose |
Alligator clips, electrical |
|
Pliers, long nose |
Electrical wire, roll 3 mm |
|
Spanner, adjustable 200 mm |
Tyre levers |
|
Tyre pressure gauge |
Wheel brace |
|
Set metric spanners |
Feeler gauges, set * |
|
Set metric sockets |
Fan belt |
|
Small hammer |
Power steering belt |
|
Hacksaw and blades |
Contact points, set * |
|
Puncture repair outfit |
Spark plugs, set * |
|
Spark plug socket * |
Jumper leads |
|
Set of radiator and heater hoses |
Grease, 500 gms |
|
Tyre pump, hand or foot operated |
Epoxy resin |
|
Condenser * |
Fuel filter |
|
Coil * |
Masking tape |
|
Funnel |
Rubber vulcanising tape |
|
Can of aerosol de-wetting agent |
Plastic tubing, 8 mm |
|
Brake fluid, 500 ml |
Paint brush |
|
Engine oil, 5L |
Magnet |
|
Gear oil, 500 ml |
Electrical fuses, set |
|
Trouble light |
Block hardwood |
|
Araldite fixative |
Hydraulic jack |
NOTE:
* Diesel vehicles do not require these items.
Vehicle Recovery Equipment
Long handled and short handled shovels
Winch, complete with cables, tree protector and snatch blocks
Chain, 6m x 30 mm [fitted with moused hook and adjusting claw]
Nylon rope, 25m x 27 mm
Wire rope, 5m x 12 mm [ESFSWR with snap lock and hook at each end]
Snatch strap, 8m
High lift jack
Bull bag
Marlinspike
DRIVING TIPS
Listed below are some generally accepted safe driving practises to make your trip both safer and more enjoyable, they include -
§ When driving on waterlogged roads it is better to keep to the centre and avoid soft edges. While the ride may be rougher the road surface is usually firmer.
§ When crossing flooded creeks get out of your vehicle and test the depth and current before crossing. If the rain has stopped the water level quite often drops in a few hours so in the interest of safety it may be better to wait.
§ After driving through water do not stop the vehicle at once. Remember that everything under the bonnet will be wet and by running the engine it will have more chance to dry out.
§ Brakes may be ineffective after driving through water and can be dried out by driving a short distance with your foot on the brake pedal.
§ Use the square-on approach to slopes. Go straight up and down hills and sand dunes. Remember that travelling across the face of a slope is dangerous as the vehicle can easily roll over.
HANDY HINTS
If a vehicle breakdown does occur or you encounter problems with your vehicle it may be possible to improvise parts and make the necessary repairs or adjustments. Listed below are some suggested improvisations -
§ Nuts, bolts and fixing brackets can often be replaced with wire.
§ Nylon panty hose or soft rope can be tied in a circle to replace fan belts.
§ A piece of thick canvas or vinyl can be used to make a sleeve for a blown tyre.
§ A flat tyre can be filled with sand, clothing or vegetation.
§ A hole in a petrol tank can be sealed by covering it with a piece of rag covered in condensed milk, a wad of chewing gum or soap. You may also consider plugging the hole with a wooden plug carved from a stick.
§ Mustard or pepper added to a radiator will stop minor leaks, it is a good idea to always carry a packet of epoxy resin bonding agent in your tool kit for longer lasting repairs.
§ Quick setting araldite can be used to affect a repair to a holed sump; in several reported cases a coin araldited over the hole was successful.
§ A useful item of recovery equipment for getting out of a bog if you do not have a winch is a shovel. If the vehicle is deeply bogged then try to clear the chassis rails and diff[s] and form an escape ramp in front of each wheel. Next you will need to jack up each of the four wheels individually and place material such as sticks, stones and any other material to hand under the tyres. This procedure will lift the vehicle out of the bog and at the same time give the tyres a firm surface to grip on.
§ A valuable accessory for getting out of bogs is the bull-bag. This is a blow-up rubber bag, which is placed under the vehicle and inflated by connecting it to the exhaust pipe with the engine running. Its purpose is to jack up the vehicle; it can be used on any surface.
CODE OF ETHICS
Outback travellers should consider themselves caretakers of the land and ensure that their actions do not add to the degradation of the landscape.
§ Do make sure your vehicle is in sound mechanical condition and equipped with all necessary fuel, food, water and spares needed to complete the journey.
§ Do have the ability to communicate with the outside world either by radio, satellite phone or global positioning system e-mail.
§ Do tell someone of your intentions. Notification of your time of departure, intended route, campsites and estimated time of arrival at your destination may be posted at local police stations.
§ Do camp in designated campsites or in natural clearings if none are available.
§ Do observe fire restrictions, clear around fire areas and extinguish all fires.
§ Don’t break or cut live branches from trees and shrubs for fires or campsites.
§ Don’t leave garbage in the bush, carry a bin bag with you and remove your waste.
§ Do stay on existing tracks and endeavour not to create new tracks or short cuts.
§ Do clear fallen trees or logs if possible rather than driving around them.
§ Don’t camp near stock troughs or in water catchments.
§ Do carry maps, information on terrain, track and weather conditions, navigation equipment and set escape routes.
§ Don’t travel off-road at night. If you must travel at night use only 50% of the speed you would use during the day and do not attempt rocky ground, mud patches or deep water crossings.
§ Do know your vehicle controls so you know where they are in an emergency.
§ Do know the length and width of your vehicle for negotiating difficult terrain.
§ Don’t infringe on the privacy of aboriginal people or any settlement and be aware that permission must be obtained to cross aboriginal reserves and communities.
§ Don’t carry firearms on pastoral leases without permission from the lessees.
§ Travellers from outside Western Australia must obtain a temporary firearms permit from the nearest Police Station on entering the state.
Survival is best defined as simply staying alive. Generally speaking survival in the outback is a day-to-day proposition. Each day can be broken into two parts, ensuring that once the sun rises your efforts are directed to staying alive to see it set and vice versa once the sun sets to see it rise.
The first rule of survival
The first rule of survival is “don’t panic”. You must take stock of your situation.
The survival mnemonic
The survival mnemonic will assist you to avoid immediate panic.
S Size up the situation.
U Undue haste makes waste.
R Remember where you are.
V Vanquish fear and panic.
I Improvise.
V Value living.
A Act like the locals.
L Lean on your basic skills.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR SURVIVAL
You will need four basic requirements to survive, they are -
§
WATER
§
SHELTER
§
WARMTH
§
FOOD
In general the priorities will be as listed, however, in some situations you may alter them to suit, for instance in the arid zone shelter may become number one priority if sufficient water is available. If you have taken the precaution of notifying someone of where you are going and how long you intend to stay, a search will no doubt be conducted to look for you.
Your task will be to use the knowledge and skills you have to provide the four basic requirements to stay alive until found.
ACTIONS BY SURVIVORS
While a survival situation will be a traumatic experience for most people the effect it will have will depend on circumstances. For instance being stranded in an environment where the basic requirements for survival are available will not be as traumatic as in a harsh environment containing no visible signs of the basic requirements for survival.
Stress and Survivors
Survivors will face many stresses that can lessen the will to survive. It is necessary to understand that stress is simply our reaction to pressure. Too much stress will lead to distress resulting in anti-social behaviour, angry outbursts, an inability to get on with others, difficulty making decisions, an inability to accept responsibility and eventually withdrawal from the group.
Common Stressors and Reactions
The most important stressors in a survival situation include injury, illness, death, uncertainty, lack of control, environment, hunger, thirst, fatigue and isolation. There are natural reactions to stress that need to be recognised, expected and for which strategic interventions need to be implemented. These include fear, anxiety, anger, frustration and depression. It is important you do not over-react, don’t panic and remain as calm as possible and remain focused on survival.
Initial Critical Reactions
Do recognise that you are in a survival situation and don’t be afraid to make an honest appraisal of the situation. Get your thoughts on track by employing the survival mnemonic and recognise any survival stressors that may be present. Overcome any negative attitude assumptions and adopt a positive attitude. Remember your life and the lives of others who are relying on you to do your share are at stake.
Questions You Should Ask Yourself In A Survival Situation
§ How much water do I have and how will I procure more?
§ What shelter from the elements will I need and how will I provide it?
§ What is the temperature range and will I need a fire for warmth?
§ How much food do I have and what food is available?
Survival Situation Appreciations
There are six elements to a survival situation appreciation, they are –
1. Review the situation
2. Determine your aim
3. List the factors affecting your survival
4. Identify all courses open to you
5. Select the best course of action
6. Make a plan
NOTE:
Remember your physical strength and emotional resources are at their strongest in the first three days of survival.
PERSONAL SURVIVAL KIT
The following is a list of equipment that should be sufficient to provide the four basic requirements for survival.
Items Uses
Water bottle. Complete with drinking water.
Survival knife. Multi-purpose tool.
Plastic bags. Ground sheet. Improvised raincoat. Shelter building.
Water collection. Water carrying. Carry bags.
Foil rescue blanket. Shelter. Warmth. Water collection. Signalling aid.
Nylon cord. Shelter building. Repairs. Weapons. Snares.
Fishing gear. Fishing. Shelter building. Snares.
Signalling mirror. Signalling aid.
Waterproof matches. Fire lighting. Signalling.
Water purifying tablets. Water purification.
Barley sugar. Energy food source.
Notepaper and pencil. Keep diary. Messages
NOTE:
Your
kit should fit on your belt and must be carried with you at all times.
EMERGENCY PACK
The following is a list of equipment designed to provide the four basic requirements for survival for the three-day period following a vehicle breakdown or air emergency.
Items Uses
Water bottles. Complete with 4 litres of drinking water.
Foil rescue blanket. Shelter. Warmth. Water collection. Signalling aid.
Food. 6 ready-to-eat meals in cans [or other].
Nylon cord. Shelter building. Repairs. Weapons. Snares.
Waterproof matches. Fire lighting. Signalling.
NOTE:
Your
pack must be carried in your vehicle or aircraft at all times.
Water
THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER TO SURVIVAL
In Western Australia people die due to dehydration after becoming lost or having their vehicle break down in the remote and arid areas of the state. Many of these deaths occur because the individuals did not carry out good survival techniques.
The average person can expect to survive without water for three to five days [depending on the climate and what they try to do]. Some instances show individuals have perished within hours of becoming lost.
You must conserve any water you have, including that already in your body. Water is required to replace fluid that is lost, so by conserving body fluid you require less water intake.
Fluid Loss
Fluid is lost from the body by -
Perspiring, breathing, urinating, vomiting, crying and talking.
Perspiring
Is a normal bodily process that has a cooling effect as the moisture evaporates from the skin surface.
A person sitting in the shade when the temperature is 35C would lose about two litres of fluid in a twenty-four hour period.
You should keep your body temperature down to a minimum either by natural or artificial means. It is important to keep activity down to a minimum and conserve existing body fluids.
Urinating
Is also a normal bodily process and cannot be prevented. However, it should be held as long as possible to slow down this fluid loss from the body.
On no account drink urine unless it has been distilled. You could apply it to the skin surface with a sponge, in the hope that it will reduce your body temperature.
Vomiting
Can be avoided by leaving bad or harmful food well alone.
Crying
Should also be avoided, but it may be difficult to convince a child of this.
When to consume water in a survival situation
If you are unable to locate or procure water and are limited to the water in your survival kit it should only be consumed in small sips to replace some of the fluid lost to your system. This water may increase your time frame for survival by up to half a day if used wisely.
NOTE:
Sucking stones is not recommended as it produces saliva, thereby using up precious fluid from your body. Do not drink salt water and remember dirty water should only be drunk after it has been purified.
METHODS OF WATER PROCUREMENT
Your first efforts in a survival situation should be directed towards establishing a good water supply. Initially you should look for ground water using the following methods.
Creek beds
Are easily discernible in dry areas because of the relatively green vegetation and taller trees following the course of the creek. Unless there has been recent rain in the area the creek bed will probably be quite dry.
You may be lucky enough to locate damp sand or mud at the bends of the creek or by digging in the creek bed at a likely spot. Water can be extracted from the damp sand or mud by soaking a rag in soil and wringing out the water into a container.
The exposed tree roots in the creek bed can be cut in lengths and drained of their fluid early in the morning. To reduce the risk of infection, any surface water must be boiled.
Rock Formations
If there is any water seepage from the ground, it is usually to be found near rock formations, where the country is rugged and undulating. It may also be found in some apparently dry areas. Rocky areas are ideal for rain catchments. Rain soaks very quickly into the soil, whereas it can lie in pools on a rocky surface for some time.
Salt Lakes
After rain has fallen, the top 3 mm of a salt lake is fresh water. It can be siphoned off by using a grass straw or tubing from your survival kit.
Windmills
These have been erected on most farms and stations throughout the state at such locations as wells, dams and soaks. These can be seen from a long distance and usually have animal tracks leading to them. Check the water at these mills has not gone salty.
Animal Trails
Animals need water the same as humans and they will travel great distances regularly each day, leaving trails to the water source. Where a large number of trails converge together, it would indicate that the water was not far distant.
Water seepage
Natural springs and soft rock erosion areas [slopes, banks, etc.]
Tree Roots
In the early morning before the heat of the day, the roots from trees such as the boab, kurrajong, wattle and some gums can be cut into short lengths, stood end on with their thickest ends down in a container allowing the fluid to drain. It is best to use roots that are easily obtained with a minimum of effort. The ideal location for this is in creek beds and washouts where parts of the roots are already exposed or near the surface.
Coastal Water Sources
You can obtain drinking water by digging high up on the beach above the tidemark or behind the first sand hills. It tastes brackish and should only be used in small quantities.
Dew
The collection is tedious, but of some value in heavy grassland. Tie clumps of grass or cloth around ankles and walk around in dew-drenched grass at dusk or dawn. Squeeze moisture into a container and repeat. If you have a vehicle, wipe down the vehicle with a cloth.
Transpiration Method
Water can be obtained by placing clear plastic bags over the leafy branch of a non-poisonous tree and securing the end of the branch. Ensure there are no holes in the bag [seal these with black tape, band-aids, etc.]. The action of the sun on the plastic will cause water to be drawn from the leaves and run to the lowest part of the bag.
Do not disturb the bag to collect the water, simply cut a small hole in the bag then reseal it. The leaves will continue to produce water as the roots draw it from the ground.
Figure 1 - The transpiration method
The water should be drained off every two hours and stored. Tests indicate that if this is not done the leaves stop producing water. Probably the heavy concentration of moisture-laden air reduces the effectiveness of the sun.
If there are no large trees in the area, you can break up clumps of grass or small bushes and place them inside the bag. The same effect will take place. If this is done the foliage will have to be replaced at regular intervals when water production is reduced.
Ensure these bags receive maximum sunshine at all times. Exposed roots can be tested for water content. Soft pulpy roots will yield the greatest amount of liquid for less effort.
Distilling Sea Water
If only salt water is available a distilling plant can be made. You will have to improvise and use containers that can be found or that you may have.
First you require a container of seawater and material to seal the container to prevent steam from escaping. Push one end of the tubing or rubber hose through this seal material and check to see that the seal remains intact while blowing into the loose end of the tubing. Place the container onto a fire and bring to the boil.
Steam will be forced through the tube where it condenses and fresh water will drip from the end, into another container.
Figure 2 - The condensation method
Another method is to simply bring water to the boil and catch as much steam as possible on a piece of cloth and then ring it out. Although this method works, it is not the most efficient.
You must remember that the steam is the fresh water and therefore you must trap the steam to get fresh water. Any improvised method will do even if you place an open container on the fire and bring it to the boil, and then arrange a small plastic "tent" on top of it. The steam will strike the tent, condense and run down to your container or containers.
NOTE:
Alfoil or similar would make a seal around the container by folding it into a cone shape with the tubing attached to the small end of the cone and placing the large end around the container, secure ends of cone with wire to make the seal. Run the tubing through a cooling agent [water].
WATER PURIFICATION
You must always ensure that the water you drink will not cause internal infection as this will lead to further loss of body fluid.
Clarification
The water you drink should be as clear as possible. You must strain it to remove the suspended matter, etc. A good method of doing this is to make a filter from the leg of a pair of trousers. Into this place fine sand up to one third the length of the trouser leg, charcoal for the next one third and fill to the top with gravel, small stones, etc.
Hang the leg of the trousers in a tree or similar and pour in the muddy water. It will take a little time but clarified water will begin to seep through the filter and drip into a container placed underneath.
Sterilisation
Because the water is clear does not mean that it has no bacteria in it. To make sure of this you must sterilise any natural water that you drink. To sterilise water you can use several methods; the easiest would be to put in sterilisation tablets. The alternatives would be to boil the water or to use other chemicals that will neutralise any bacteria such as Condy's Crystals or Iodine.
Shelter
Extremes of heat and cold are the enemies of human survival and both these qualities are found in inland arid regions where very hot days are followed by cold nights.
A shelter will provide you with protection from the elements, insects and animals. It is also a big psychological boost that will help you feel that you are managing. Determine what type of shelter you require and plan accordingly.
Using Vehicles as Shelter
Vehicles are a source of shelter as they provide protection from the sun during the day and the cold air at night. Blankets or branches can be used to keep direct sun from the vehicle. Boot lids and bonnets can be removed.
Rescue And Space Blanket
Space or rescue blankets are cheap, lightweight and an ideal item to assist in providing shelter. The reflective surface reflects the sun's rays from the person sheltering underneath.
Natural Shelter
If nothing else is to hand you will have to use bush materials, when constructing a shelter you should consider the following points –
§ Type of protection required.
§ Availability of materials.
§ Proximity of water.
§ Close to your emergency signals.
When you begin construction, use larger branches for your basic frame as you will find a roof fairly heavy when it is wet and they will have to support it. Branches can be tied together using vines, strips of bark or sword grass. If you are near your vehicle, strip out wires to use for this.
Remember that your ability to improvise and see alternate uses for items that you may have available to you could mean the difference between life and death.
TYPES OF SHELTERS
Any survival situation will involve the construction of some form of shelter from the elements.
The need for shelter and the type of shelter should be identified in your survival situation appreciation. It is important that you base any decision to build a shelter on your survival plan.
NOTE:
Be careful not to use items from your survival kit which have a higher priority of use.
Building shelters
Some fairly simple types of shelter, which you can build, with a minimum of effort include the following -
Figure 3 - The A-frame shelter
Figure 4 - The lean-to shelter
Figure 5 - The aboriginal shelter
Roofing
If your vehicle is handy, you can pull out the head lining to use to make a waterproof roof. If not, then blankets, sleeping bags or even spare clothes can be used for a sunshade.
Thatching
Thatching can be done by using materials such as leaves from palms or leafy branches; even tufts of grass tied together will provide a thatch. Some types of thatching you can use include the tufted grass thatch and the batten thatch.
Figure 6 - Batten thatch using grass and palm fronds
Use Of Debris
Once you have constructed the skeletal structure for your shelter in cold or wet weather you should consider the use of debris for protection and insulation.
Over the framework heap on a pile of light soft debris. Leaves, grasses, brush, almost anything will do. The debris should eventually form a large dome shaped mound some 60 cm thick over the structure.
Remember the thicker the pile the better the insulation and the steeper the pitch the better the rain protection. On top of the debris add some bark slabs or moss to form a protective waterproof layer.
Your shelter will depend largely on what is available to use and what the conditions are. Common sense will guide you but be warned, a shelter takes a good deal longer to build than one imagines.
If you can find something that will provide a part of a shelter such as a hollow log, then use it as the basis of your shelter, this will save time and energy.
NOTE:
While building your shelter remember that heat stroke and loss of body fluid can be avoided by keeping in the shade and moving as little as possible during the heat of the day.
Warmth
FIRELIGHTING WITHOUT MATCHES
Fire cooks, warms, sterilises and acts as a signal if necessary. To start a fire requires an understanding of combustion. For combustion to occur requires the presence of fuel, heat and oxygen. Fuel consists of dry vegetable matter, dry animal manure, reactive chemicals, kindling and timber. Heat can be provided by friction, chemical reaction, spark or magnification. Remember that oxygen is the essential ingredient to produce flame from heat and fuel.
Always carry some form of fire starter with you on trips such as waterproof matches or lighter. If you do not have these then your skills should include at least one of the following methods. Remember that traditional methods of fire lighting require a high degree of patience and skill and should be learned and practised in a training environment.
Vehicle Method
Your vehicle has probably been fitted with a cigarette lighter. Use this to ignite a petrol soaked rag [outside the car]. If you do not have a lighter then pull out two wires from the vehicle and attach these to the terminals of your battery, run them away to the ground. When the ends are touched together they will spark and ignite tinder.
Figure 7 - The battery method of fire lighting
NOTE:
The gas produced by a battery is highly volatile and if exposed to a spark could cause an explosion. Make sure the fire is started away from the battery.
Torch Battery Method
A fire can be started by holding very fine steel wool over the negative terminals of a 6-volt torch battery and brushing it against the positive terminal. The sparks produced should ignite the steel wool [make sure you have tinder ready].
Chemical Method
Condy's Crystals from your survival or first aid kit can also be used to start a fire by mixing in equal amounts with sugar [barley sugar can be used] and grinding them with the flat of a knife blade. The result is a brief intense flame.
NOTE:
Make sure
that you have tinder prepared and ready when lighting fires
The Fire - Bow Method
This method is used by many indigenous people around the world. To use the fire-bow take a turn around the drill with the nylon cord attached to the bow [if you have used green timber for a bow the tension will be applied automatically, otherwise use your fingers to hold it tight]. Place the tip of the drill into the base starting groove and hold the headstock onto the top of the drill. Push and pull the bow to rotate the drill. The over-heated shavings [punk] will fall through the groove in the base onto the tinder. The small ember, which will form, should be held in the tinder and blown until it ignites.
Figure 8 - The fire-bow method of fire lighting
§ The Bow - can be any branch of a tree and should be approximately 45 cm to 60 cm.
§ The Head Stock - is a piece of hardwood to hold the top of the drill and allow it to rotate.
§ The Base - is a softer piece of dry wood flattened top and bottom so it will sit on the ground to allow the drill to start. A small groove is cut into the side of the base directly beside where the drill is to be used to allow the shavings or punk to fall onto the tinder.
§ The Drill - consists of a piece of dry wood of soft texture 30 - 40 cm long and as straight as possible. The diameter should be 1.5 cm to 2 cm, the drill sharpened to a point at both ends to fit into the starting groove of both the base and head stock.
NOTE:
One of the better types of wood to use for both the drill and base is the lower portion of blackboy stalk.
The Lens Method
Strong sunlight focused through a lens can produce enough heat to ignite tinder. The lens can come from a magnifying glass [including the base of some compasses], binoculars, camera or telescopic sights from firearms.
Flint, Steel and Magnesium Blocks
Flint is a stone which if struck with a piece of steel [knife] produces sparks, which will ignite tinder. Magnesium blocks [flint attached] are available commercially for inclusion in survival kits as emergency firelighters.
Food
LIVING OFF THE LAND
Although food is not as important as the other three requirements for survival it is necessary for a prolonged survival situation. Any available foods should be eaten sparingly, keeping in mind that it is better to have one meal a day than to nibble small amounts.
The average healthy adult can live for several weeks without food so this will give ample time to locate nourishment from natural sources if necessary.
Food sources
Sources of food available to survivors include; animals, bird life, marine life, insects, grubs and plant life.
In considering natural sources of food, there are some important points to remember –
1. Most animals, bird and plant life are protected and should only be used for food sources in emergencies. Should it be necessary to kill, only kill what is necessary for your survival.
2. The body needs fluid to digest food, so foods with a high water content should be considered before others. If no water at all is available, then food should be avoided, particularly meat, which requires more fluid to digest than vegetation.
3. You do not need to be a skilled hunter to obtain food in the bush. Even without weapons of any description enough lizards, insects and grubs can be found to keep a person alive for several days simply by looking under rocks and dead branches, tree stumps and anthills.
4.
If possible all foods should be cleaned carefully by washing,
then cooked, thus lessening the chances of any infection or stomach upsets.
5. Generally bush food is tough, fibrous, unpalatable, and to some, even nauseating; nevertheless it is food.
The food preferential
Most people when forced to live off the land will find it easier to try to eat food that reminds them of their normal diet at home. For this reason it is handy to know that our food preferences can be divided into three classes. These are –
§ 1st Class - marsupials - birds – fish - fowl
§ 2nd Class - reptiles
§ 3rd Class - vegetation - grubs - insects
Animals and Reptiles
The presence of any animal or bird life in an area is evident by tracks, droppings and traces of fur or feathers. If you have been lucky enough to find a waterhole used by animals it is a simple matter to sit under cover, down-wind from the water source and either shoot or snare the animals as they come to water.
Even by walking through the bush quietly during the day it is possible to surprise sleeping animals in creek beds, under shady trees and amongst rocky outcrops.
Some of the most likely animals seen in the bush include; kangaroos, small marsupials, wild goats, donkeys, pigs, rabbits, snakes, lizards, frogs, sheep and cattle.
Some imagination and bushcraft skills are needed in knowing where to look, how to recognise tracks and how to snare the faster moving animals.
SNARING ANIMALS
Without a firearm or manufactured animal trap most animals can be snared with a wire noose placed in a convenient position such as the entrance to a hole or above an animal path between two trees.
The noose should slide freely and the other end of the wire should be anchored securely to a tree or post. As the animal passes through, the noose tightens around the neck quickly killing it as it tries to pull free. This type of trap is generally successful at night when the animal cannot see the snare. Care should be taken not to leave any human smell on the wire.
Owing to the cruel nature of the snare, it should only be used when other methods fail.
If setting a snare look for signs of fur around a tree's base or signs along a fence line to indicate where an animal has passed through. Animals will return to the same place to sleep and will continue to negotiate fences at the same spot.
Figure 9 - The animal snare
Figure 10 - The reef knot snare
Figure 11 - The possum snare
Figure 12 - The pit trap
Figure 13 - The bait-stick snare
Figure 14 - The toggle stick release snare
Figure 15 - The toggle stick deadfall
Figure 16 - The figure four deadfall
NOTE:
Remember traps and snares are illegal and should only be used in survival situations when your life is in danger.
Bird Life
Ground feeding birds can be trapped by placing grass or other bait under a cage made from wire netting or green sticks woven together. The cage is propped up with a stick that is pulled out by a hidden observer tugging a string as the bird walks under the cage. The cage falls, trapping the bird.
Figure 17 - The bird trap
A fishing line can also be used successfully. Bait the hook with an insect, bread, or other edible matter; tie the line to a tree or stick where the birds frequent.
Birds are rather difficult to shoot or trap because of their flighty nature but you may be lucky enough to locate a nest, either on the ground or in the trees, containing eggs or young.
Most birds try to confuse intruders by flying away from their nest at the approach of any danger. This has the effect of leading the intruder in the wrong direction, thus protecting the eggs or young.
Emus are very common in outback areas and can be enticed towards bright objects waved by a person hiding behind a bush. As the bird's inquisitive nature leads it within metres of the object, the person can then step out and kill the bird with a suitable weapon.
When shooting or trapping, frequent a water source if possible. Stealth, not speed, is of great importance when shooting and patience at a water hole at dawn or dusk is usually rewarded.
Reptiles
All reptiles are edible including venomous snakes [remove the head and portion of the neck to remove the venom glands]. Goannas being reptiles are fatty and oily so if you have to eat these, overcook them. Remember, care must be taken when catching venomous snakes and other reptiles, as their bite can be fatal or lead to infection.
Marine Life
Fish can be caught using the usual method of a baited hook whether in the sea or inland rock holes.
They can also be trapped near the water's edge by using a fence of upright sticks pushed into the sand close together. This type of fish trap is used by fishermen in tropical areas with extreme tides where netting is used in place of the sticks. The fish are trapped by the mesh of sticks and easily removed when the tide goes out.
Another method of gathering sea food is by digging in the sand or turning over rocks for shellfish after the tide has receded. This is how some fishermen collect bait for line fishing.
Insects
Insects and their larvae are often overlooked as a source of food even though they are widespread and easy to obtain. Fried termites have a calorie value that puts them amongst the richest foods.
Most other insects have a high food value and are a particularly good source of nourishment. They also have a high food value as well as a having a high fluid content.
In some overseas countries, maggots, grasshoppers and termites form part of the natural diet. Termites can be obtained by breaking open anthills or dead wood and picked up on the end of a wet fingertip. The taste is in no way offensive and the same can be said for ant eggs.
The insect larvae known as the bardy or witchetty grub is obtained by breaking open dead trees and blackboy stumps after examining for the characteristic borer holes. Other insect larvae may also be present and can be eaten if there is no offensive smell or taste.
Do not eat furry grubs or grubs with black showing through the skin. Snails and slugs can be eaten but are an unlikely source of food as they favour wetter areas and there would be alternate food available.
Honey ants can be collected near the base and on the branches of trees in tropical areas. The fluid from their abdomens is good nourishment as is honey from wild bees if you are lucky enough to locate any.